Arthur Academy Charter Schools waxay isticmaalaan hab korodhsi, hab-waxbarasho heer sare ah oo loogu talagalay baridda maadooyinka aasaasiga ah ee akhriska, xisaabta iyo luqadda ee laga helo taxane faahfaahsan, barnaamijyo horay loo qorsheeyay oo loo yaqaan Tilmaamaha tooska ah. Habkan gaarka ah ee wax lagu baro maaddooyinka aasaasiga ah ee akhriska, xisaabta, higgaadda iyo xirfadaha luqadda waxay ku salaysan tahay hab wax-barid oo dhammaystiran. Habkani waa hab wax-barid kaas oo sidoo kale qeexaya doorashada dugsigeena charter. Bixinta tusaalahan waxay ku salaysan tahay aaminsanaanta in hab wax-barid xoog leh uu jiro oo aan laga faa'iidaysan badi dugsiyada, sidaas awgeed dugsiyadeenna charter-ka ahi waxay bixiyaan doorasho ahaan.
Qaabka wax-barashada waxaa loo yaqaan Waxbarashada Sare. Barnaamijyada waxbarida ee isticmaalaya qaabkan waxa loo yaqaan Tilmaamaha Tooska ah (DI) ee baridda akhris-qoris hore iyo aasaaska xisaabta ee fasallada K-5. Qaabkan, oo leh barnaamijyadan, waa qaabka dib-u-habeeynta waxbarasho ee sida ugu wanaagsan loo diiwaangeliyay ee fasallada dugsiga hoose iyo dhexe. Waxay xooga saaraysaa casharro si wanaagsan loo horumariyay oo si taxadar leh loo qorsheeyay, looguna talagalay kordhinta waxbarashada yaryar iyo hawlaha waxbarida ee loo qoondeeyay. Waxbarashada waxaa loo habeeyaa si aad u kordheysa si ay ardaydu u helaan waxbarashadooda si sahlan laakiin ay adag tahay, sidaas darteed, waxay ku guuleysan karaan haynta wax kasta oo la baro marka ay ku sii socdaan barnaamijyada.
Qalabka manhajka DI wuxuu u kala jejebiyaa dhammaan ujeedooyinka guud horumaro waxbarasho oo aad u yar. Dhammaan waxqabadyada si taxadar leh ayaa loo taxaabay si ay si fudud u bartaan, loo maareeyo oo si tartiib tartiib ah loogu ururiyo ujeedooyinka waaweyn. Waxqabadyada waxaa loo soo bandhigaa carruurta si dhab ah, siyaalo is dhexgal ah si carruurtu u dhiirigeliyaan.
Habkani waxa uu tacliin ahaan diiradda saaray bilowgii, xannaanada. Waxay ku salaysan tahay aaminsanaanta in barashada akadeemiyadeed ay noqon karto mid nafteeda dhiirigelin leh marka si cad, nidaamsan oo xamaasad leh wax loo baro. Waxaa la arkay in caruurtu ay ku faraxsan yihiin oo ay helaan kalsooni marka ay bartaan xirfadaha aqoonta iyo aqoonta barnaamijyadan.
In kasta oo habkan wax-baridku uu ka dhigan yahay horumar taariikhi ah oo dhinaca waxbarashada ah, fikradaha aasaasiga ahi waxa laga yaabaa in aanay ahayn wax cusub. Xigasho laga soo xigtay Samuel Johnson, faylasuufkii iftiimay iyo macalinkii qarnigii 18-aad ayaa caddaynaya arrintan.
"Farshaxanka ugu muhiimsan ee waxbarashada, sida Locke uu arkay, waa in la isku dayo laakiin in yar oo keliya. Dalxiiska ugu ballaaran ee maskaxda waxaa sameeya duulimaadyo gaaban oo si joogta ah loo soo noqnoqdo; dharka ugu sarreeya ee sayniska waxaa lagu sameeyay ururinta joogtada ah ee hal-abuurnimo. " Samuel Johnson (Julaay 9, 1751)
Asalka Qaabka Waxbarasho ee Waxbarashada Sare
Isticmaalka barnaamijyadan waxay keeneen guulo waxbarasho oo sare. Waxaa jira sababo wanaagsan oo natiijooyinka noocaan ah. Barnaamijyada DI ee laga isticmaalo dugsiyadeena ayaa ah qaar ka mid ah barnaamijyada wax barasho ee caddaynta ku salaysan ee la heli karo. Dhammaantood waxay isticmaalaan falanqayn macquul ah oo taxaddar leh oo ku saabsan barashada asaasiga ah iyo xirfadaha qaybaha oo ay weheliso habka Waxbarashada Sare ee waxbaridda. Saldhigga Barashada Sarraynta waa in heerka horumarka ilmaha lagu go'aamiyo ilaa inta uu isagu ama iyadu si taxadar leh u barto casharrada iyo waxqabadyada u horseedaya hanashada xirfadaha aasaasiga ah iyo aqoonta aasaasiga ah.
Habka Learning Mastery ee laga helay barnaamijyadani waa qayb ka mid ah safka dheer ee aragtida waxbarasho iyo cilmi-baadhista oo soo taxnayd ilaa iyo hadda shaqadii Carleton Washbourne (1922) iyo Henry Morrison (1926) ee Jaamacadda Chicago Laboratory School. Shaqadan waxaa sii waday qaar kale oo badan, kuwa ugu caansan, qaabka John Carroll's (1963) ee waxbarashada dugsiga iyo shaqada dheeraadka ah ee Benjamin Bloom (1984) iyo ardaydiisii ka qalinjabisay, sidoo kale Jaamacadda Chicago. Inta badan astaamaha Barashada Mastery (ML) waxay sidoo kale ka soo baxeen tiro badan oo daraasado Waxbarasho oo Wax ku ool ah oo uu soo sheegay Jerry Brophy, "Akhlaaqda Macallinka iyo Guusha Ardayga", (1986) iyo Barak Rosenshine, "Horumarka Cilmi-baarista ee Tilmaamaha" (1997) sida sifooyinka muhiimka ah ee waxtarka.
Barnaamijyada Tilmaamaha Tooska ah (DI), ee ay soo saareen, baaris ku sameeyeen oo ay daabaceen Engelmann, Becker iyo Carnine, ayaa caan ku ah qaadista mabaadi'da Waxbarashada Sare ee wax-barida tayada sare leh ilaa heerkooda ugu dambeeya, habaysan ee agabka manhajka.
Caddeyn Taageero
Qalabkan oo keliya ayaa ahaa mawduuca daraasado badan. Labadii daraasadood ee ugu dambeeyay waxay ku lug lahaayeen dib u eegis uu sameeyay Machadka Cilmi-baarista Maraykanka (AIR) ee 1999 iyo 2005. Dib-u-eegisyadan, 22 si ballaaran loo qaatay moodooyinka waxbarida dib-u-habeeynta dugsiga hoose ayaa la aqoonsaday. Barnaamijyada DI waxay ahaayeen mid ka mid ah labada barnaamij ee helay qiimaynta ugu sarraysa ee haysashada caddaynta saamaynta togan ee guusha ardayda heerka hoose ee labada dib u eegis.
Si wada jir ah, moodooyinka dib-u-habaynta ee lagu eegay daraasaddii 2005 waxay u adeegeen kumanaan dugsiyo oo u badan saboolnimo sare, waxqabad hooseeyana dalka oo dhan. Marka loo eego daraasaadkaan, moodooyinka helay qiimeyn sare, sida barnaamijyada tilmaamaha tooska ah, waxaa loo tixgaliyaa "cilmi-baaris ku saleysan" oo bixiya tababarka si loo gaaro guusha ardayga. Warbixinahani waa dib u eegistii ugu ballaadhnayd uguna ballaadhanayd ee lagu sameeyay moodooyinka dib-u-habaynta dugsiga hoose ee abid la soo saaro. Barnaamijyada akhris-qoraalka iyo qoraalka DI waxay sidoo kale buuxiyeen shuruudaha aan Ilmo Looga Tagin (NCLB) ee caddaynta cilmiyeysan waxayna ku jireen liiska NCLB ee barnaamijyada la ansixiyay.
Faragelinta hore ee bilowga wax-akhrisku waxay ahayd baahi si wanaagsan loo aqoonsaday ee dugsiyada, gaar ahaan labaatankii sano ee la soo dhaafay. Cilmi-baarayaasha, Anne E. Cunningham iyo Keith E. Stanovich, ayaa soo saaray cilmi-baaris ballaaran oo baaray qiimaha ka hortagga hore ee akhriska. Waxay ku soo koobeen natiijooyinka daraasaddooda warbixintii 1998, "What Reading For the Mind", oo laga helay arrinta gu'ga/xagaaga ee Baraha Mareykanka. Diirada waxbarashadoodu waxay ahayd saamaynta mugga wax-akhris ee nolosha ilmaha ay ku leedahay garaadka guud ahaan. Carruurta wax-akhrisku goor hore bilaabaan waxay leeyihiin faa'iidooyin kala duwan marka la ururiyo mugga wax-akhriska, sidaas awgeed, waxay aad ugu dhowdahay inay helaan xirfado wax-akhris oo heer sare ah. Cilmi-baarayaashani waxay ogaadeen in mugga wax-akhriska ay ka dhigan tahay kala duwanaansho dhowr cabbir oo caqli-galnimo ah: kobaca fahamka wax-akhris ee fasallada saddexaad iyo shanaad, celceliska fasalka dugsiga sare, imtixaannada IQ, iyo imtixaan aqooneed oo la taaban karo.
Daraasad dheer oo toban sano ah oo gaar ah, qorayaashu waxay ogaadeen in dhammaan saddexda cabbir ee la jaan-qaadaya ee awoodda wax-akhrinta fasalka koowaad (dejinta, aqoonsiga ereyga iyo fahamka) ay saadaaliyeen mugga akhriska fasalka kow iyo tobnaad. Cabbiraadahan akhriska ee fasalka koowaad waxay ahaayeen saadaaliye ka xoog badan cabbirrada IQ. Carruurta ururisa heerarka sare ee mugga wax-akhriska waxay sameeyaan inta badan sababtoo ah waxay bartaan inay goor hore wax akhriyaan. Mugga wax-akhrisku, keli ahaantiis, ayaa saamayn xooggan ku leh waxbarashada mustaqbalka iyo qaabaynta maskaxda. Waxaan barannay in, haddii carruurta halista ku jirta oo leh suurtogalnimada ugu sarreysa ee dhibaatooyinka waxbarashada ay ku bilaabi karaan dugsiga barbaarinta barnaamij tacliin adag, in badan oo ka mid ah dhibaatooyinka waxbarashadooda waa laga hortagi karaa. Sannad-dugsiyeedkii 2007-2008, 55% dhammaan 138 kindergarten, ee dhammaan lixda dugsi, waxay bilaabeen sannadka celcelis ahaan ka hooseeya celceliska akhriska. Dhammaadkii sanadka, kaliya 2% ayaa ka hooseeyay celceliska. Siinta horumarka degdega ah ee noocan oo kale ah ee xanaanada waxay siisaa dhammaan carruurta faa'iido weyn oo ay ku guulaystaan fasalada mustaqbalka.
Waxaan sidoo kale, hadda ognahay, warbixinnada qaranka ee Reid Lyon oo ka tirsan Machadka Qaranka ee Caafimaadka iyo Horumarinta Carruurta (NICHD) iyo shaqada Sally Shaywitz, MD, Isku-duwaha Xarunta Yale ee Barashada Barashada iyo Feejignaanta, iyo kuwa kale , Tilmaanta saxda ah ee hore waxay keeni kartaa isbeddel joogto ah, oo la qiyaasi karo (Cilmi-baadhista sawirka maskaxda ee MRI) ee qaababka firfircoonida maskaxda si looga hortago loogana gudbo dhibaatooyinka akhriska mustaqbalka. Tani waxay dhammaan siisay caddayn xooggan iyo sababta bixinta tilmaanta taxaddarka leh, aadka waxtarka leh ee wax-akhrinta ee fasallada hore. Dhammaan kulliyadaha Arthur waxay bixinayaan tilmaamahan natiijooyin la taaban karo.
Mastery Learning waxa kale oo ay ka muuqataa qoraallada cilmi-nafsiga caanka ah, Albert Bandura. Marka loo eego sahan la sameeyay 2002, Bandura waa cilmi-nafsiga noolaha ee inta badan la soo xigtay iyo kan afraad ee ugu badan waqtiga oo dhan. Shaqadiisa ku saabsan Waxtarka Nafta: Layliga Xakamaynta (1997), waxa uu ku tilmaamay afar ilood oo Nafta wax-ku-ool ah oo waafaqsan aragtiyaha Waxbarashada Sare. Nafta-wax-ku-oolnimada waxaa lagu qeexaa inay tahay kartida lagu gaari karo ama lagu gaari karo natiijooyin. Wax-ku-oolnimada la dareemayo waa aaminaadda kartida qofka. Aragtida noocan oo kale ah waxay soo saartaa guulo shakhsi ahaaneed waxayna yaraynaysaa diiqada. Nafta-wax-ku-oolnimada waxay ku salaysan tahay waayo-aragnimada heer sare ah, kuwaas oo lagu bilaabay barashada iyadoo la adeegsanayo muujinta iyo qaabaynta, lagu xoojiyay dhiirigelinta iyo xoojinta taasoo keenta in ardaygu rumaysto awooddooda. Waxaan aaminsanahay in dugsiyada ku salaysan Waxbarashada Sare ay qayb weyn ka qaadan karaan soo saarista sifooyinkan carruurta. Sida laga soo xigtay daraasadaha ay samaysay Bandura, cabbirada isku-kalsoonaanta ayaa ah saadaaliyayaal xooggan ee guusha dugsiga.
Barnaamujka Mastery Reading, oo ah qayb ka mid ah jidhka buuxa ee barnaamijyada wax-barashada tooska ah, waxa uu fuliyaa talooyinka ay soo saareen laba warbixin qaran oo uu u xilsaaray Koongareeska Maraykanku, warbixintii Golaha Cilmi-baadhista Qaranka (1998), taas oo keentay in la daabaco, Kahortagga Dhibaatooyinka Akhriska Carruurta yaryar, iyo Guddiga Wax-akhriska Qaranka (2000).
Habka bilawga akhrinta ee laga helay barnaamijkan oo ay taageerto warbixinnadan qaranku waxay la socotaa warbixinno cilmi-baaris oo dheer oo ka bilaabmaya Jeanne Chall's 1967 buugii, Barashada Akhriska: Doodda Weyn, daabacaadaha dambe ee badan, shaqada Isabelle Libermann iyo Donald Shankweiler oo ku saabsan wacyigelinta dhawaaqa, shaqada Kieth Stanovich ee sababaha iyo cawaaqibka dhibaatooyinka akhriska, ("Saamaynta Matthew ee akhriska," 1986), Marilyn Adams '1990 buug, Akhriska Bilawga, iyo soo koobida taariikhiga ah ee Reid Lyon ee cilmi-baarista NICHD ee akhriska " Wax-akhris: Habka Cilmi-baadhis-ku-salaysan. Tani waa uun in aan xuso dhawr ka mid ah xadiga tirada badan ee daabacaadadii la sameeyay 20kii sano ee la soo dhaafay ee sadarradan. Waxa kale oo muhiim ah in fiiro gaar ah loo yeesho warbixintii Bonnie Grossen ee 1997, "Soddon Sano oo Cilmi-baadhis ah: Waxa aan Hadda ka Naqaanno Sida Carruurtu u Bartaan inay wax u akhriyaan: Isku-dubarid cilmi-baaris ah oo ku saabsan akhrinta NIHCHD." Dr. Grossen waa xubin ka mid ah guddiga maamulka ee Machadka Waxbarasho ee Mastery (MLI).
Wax ku biirinta Gaarka ah ee Dugsiyada Waxbarashada Arthur
Arthur Academies waxa ay ogaadeen in caruurtu ay bilaabi karaan in ay wax akhriyaan marka ay xanaanada joogaan. Haddana, dugsiyo aad u yar ayaa hawshan si dhab ah u bilaabay ilaa fasalka koowaad. Sidoo kale, in kasta oo ay jiraan dib u eegista cilmi-baarista ee ay samaysay AIR, kuwaas oo si weyn loo shaaciyey (bogga hore ee Oregonian, 12/14/05), dugsiyo aad u yar ayaa adeegsada habka Waxbarashada Sare ee waxbaridda. Waxa kale oo weli dib u dhac ku yimid aqoonsiga iyo hirgelinta natiijada warbixintii dhawaan la akhriyey. Dugsiyada Arthur Academy Charter waxay muujinayaan waxtarka hab-dhaqannadan waxbaridda oo sidaas awgeed waxay saamayn ku yeelan karaan faafinta isticmaalkooda, qaabab kala duwan, dugsiyada kale.
The instructional model is called Mastery Learning. The instructional programs using this model are called Direct Instruction (DI) for teaching early literacy and the fundamentals of math in grades K-5. This model, with these programs, is the most thoroughly documented educational reform model in elementary and middle school grades. It emphasizes well-developed and carefully planned lessons, designed around small learning increments and prescribed teaching tasks. Learning is arranged very incrementally so that students find learning easy but challenging and, therefore, can be successful in mastering everything that is taught as they progress through the programs.
The DI curriculum materials break down all general objectives into very small teaching progressions. All activities are very carefully sequenced so that they can be easily learned, mastered and gradually accumulated towards larger objectives. The activities are presented to children in very exacting, interactive ways so that children are motivated.
Direct Instruction
What is Direct Instruction (DI)?
Direct Instruction (or “DI”) is a unique and very effective, nationally acclaimed program that teaches children reading, early language, and math skills.
DI is known for its clever and creative way of teaching children. What makes DI programs different and special are the carefully designed lessons. All programs are arranged and organized into precise, small and sequential steps with specific examples and wording. The children learn quickly.
These clear presentations and strategies help children get past typical trouble spots. Lessons gradually progress from simple and easy to more difficult and complicated learning. DI lessons demand active participation from the children in order to maintain their interest and attention. Rapid pacing and choral group response punctuated by individual turns characterize the delivery of a DI lesson. Children progress from directed and guided activities to increasingly more independent work. Over time, they become proud of what they know and can do and confident in their ability to learn.
The steps in DI have been developed from extensive field testing with hundreds of children over thirty years. No other program used today has been as extensively researched and developed.
Because Arthur Academy is a small school, we can be sure that these highly-specialized programs will be implemented correctly and skillfully.
The evidence is clear: DI works with children at all ability levels.
Beginning Reading
DI and Reading
We believe that all children can learn to read beginning in kindergarten. The main purpose of reading is to understand. Yet, to understand, all readers must be able to easily and quickly translate words in a printed alphabetic code into understandable speech. This process of deciphering printed words is often the source of children’s reading difficulty.
The most recent research indicates that the best way to approach this problem is directly, explicitly and systematically. This involves strengthening a child’s sensitivity and skills with speech sounds and linking these sounds to the printed words. This is phonics.
Making this connection must become automatic so a child can focus more on understanding what is read. If a child has to spend a lot of effort simply translating print to speech, he or she will be less able to understand what is read.
The Reading Mastery program uses a phonics-based approach. Children learn in sequential steps and can keep track of their own growth towards becoming good readers.
Connecting Math Concepts
DI and Math
Learning math can be difficult and boring.
Teachers disagree on how best to teach math. Some believe it best to let students “discover” math skills such as the number system or basic math operations. Under this theory, children are given word problems and then learn the computation skills necessary in order to solve them. This approach is considered a “constructionist” or “discovery” approach.
Arthur Academy takes a different approach using a program called Connecting Math Concepts (CMC). Children learn skills first. Then they are taught why the skill works. Finally, the children apply the skill to solve a word problem. Our three-step approach is skill, understanding, application--not the reverse.
CMC does this by teaching skills in small steps from the simplest to the most complicated. Lessons are a mixture of both new and old content which results in a higher level of success for each child.
CMC provides a very logical and reasonable approach to teaching math. Computation skills are taught sequentially and directly, without sacrificing understanding and application. As a result, children gain a firm foundation and can learn and perform math at all levels in future grades.
History of Arthur Academy Instructional Model
Although this way of teaching represents a historic advancement in the field of education, the basic ideas may not be all that new. A quote from Samuel Johnson, enlightened philosopher and educator of the 18th century illustrates this point.
"The chief art of learning, as Locke has observed, is to attempt but little at a time. The widest excursions of the mind are made by short flights frequently repeated; the most lofty fabrics of science are formed by the continued accumulation of single propositions." Samuel Johnson (July 9, 1751)
Origins of the Mastery Learning Instructional Model
The use of these programs has resulted in high academic achievement. There are good reasons for these kinds of results. The DI programs used in our schools are some of the most evidence-based instructional programs available. They all use a careful logical analysis of core learning and component skills combined with a Mastery Learning approach to teaching. The basis of Mastery Learning is that a child’s rate of progress is determined by the extent to which he or she masters carefully sequenced lessons and activities that lead to mastery of essential foundational skills and knowledge.
The Mastery Learning approach found in these programs is a part of a long line of educational theory and research that dates as far back as the work of Carleton Washbourne (1922) and Henry Morrison (1926) of the University of Chicago Laboratory School. This work was continued by many others, most notable, John Carroll’s (1963) model of school learning and the further work of Benjamin Bloom (1984) and his graduate students, also of the University of Chicago. Most of the Mastery Learning (ML) features also emerged in the large number of Effective Teaching studies reported by Jerry Brophy, “Teacher’s Behavior and Student Achievement”, (1986) and Barak Rosenshine, “Advances in Research on Instruction” (1997) as critical features for effectiveness.
The Direct Instruction(DI) programs, developed, researched and published by Engelmann, Becker and Carnine, are known for carrying Mastery Learning principles of high-quality instruction to their ultimate, systematic conclusion in curricular materials.
Supportive Evidence
These materials alone have been the subject of numerous studies. The two most recent studies involved reviews conducted by the American Institute of Research (AIR) in 1999 and 2005. In these reviews, 22 widely adopted comprehensive elementary school reform teaching models were identified. The DI programs were one of only two programs that received the highest rating for having evidence of positively impacting elementary level student achievement in both reviews.
Collectively, the reform models reviewed in the 2005 study served thousands of mostly high-poverty, low-performing schools nationwide. According to these studies, the models that received a high rating, such as the Direct Instruction programs, are considered “research-based” and provide the training to achieve student success. These reports are the most extensive and comprehensive reviews of elementary school reform models ever issued. The DI literacy programs also met the No Child Left Behind(NCLB) criteria for scientifically based evidence and were on the NCLB list of approved programs.
Early intervention in beginning reading has been a well-recognized need in schools, especially within the last two decades. Researchers, Anne E. Cunningham and Keith E. Stanovich, have produced a large body of research that examined the value of early prevention of reading failure. They summarized the results of their studies in a 1998 report, “What Reading Does For the Mind”, found in the Spring/Summer issue of the American Educator. The focus of their studies was on the effect of volume of reading in a child’s life on over-all intelligence. Children who begin reading early have a distinct advantage in accumulating reading volume, and thus, are more likely to acquire reading skills at a higher level. These researchers found that reading volume accounts for differences in several measures of smartness: growth in reading comprehension at grades three and five, high-school grade average, IQ tests, and a Practical Knowledge test.
In a unique ten-year longitudinal study, the authors found that all three standardized measures of first grade reading ability (decoding, word recognition and comprehension) predicted eleventh-grade reading volume. These first grade reading measures were an even stronger predictor of reading volume than IQ measures. Children who accumulate high levels of reading volume do so mostly because they learn to read early. This volume of reading, in and by itself, has a powerful affect on future learning and on the shaping of the mind. We have learned that, if at-risk children who have the highest likelihood of learning problems can start kindergarten in a strong academic program, many of their learning difficulties can be prevented. Just within the 2007-08 school year, 55% of all 138 kindergarteners, in all six schools, started the year below average in reading. By the end of the year, only 2% were below average. Giving this kind of accelerated progress in kindergarten provides all children with a huge advantage for success in future grades.
We also, now know, from national reports by Reid Lyon of the National Institute for Child Health and Development (NICHD) and the work of Sally Shaywitz, M.D., Co-director of the Yale Center for the Study of Learning and Attention, and others, that proper early instruction can bring about permanent, measurable changes (MRI brain imaging research) in the activation patterns of the brain to prevent and overcome future reading problems. This all provides strong evidence and cause for providing careful, highly effective instruction in reading in the early grades. All of the Arthur Academies are providing this instruction with outstanding results.
Mastery Learning also shows up in the writings of the distinguished psychologist, Albert Bandura. According to a 2002 survey, Bandura is the most frequently cited living psychologist and the fourth most frequent of all time. In his work on Self-Efficacy: the Exercise of Control (1997), he identifies four sources of Self-Efficacy that are consistent with Mastery Learning theories. Self-Efficacy is defined as the ability to achieve or accomplish results. Perceived self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities. Such an outlook produces personal accomplishments and reduces stress. Self-Efficacy is based on mastery experiences, which are initiated by learning through demonstration and modeling, strengthened by encouragement and reinforcement that result in a student’s belief in their capacities. We believe that schools based on Mastery Learning can play a large part in producing these qualities in children. Accord to studies conducted by Bandura, measures of self-efficacy are strong predictors of school success.
The Reading Mastery program, a component of the full body of Direct Instruction programs, implements the recommendations made by two national reports commissioned by the US Congress, reports by the National Research Council (1998), which resulted in the publication, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, and the National Reading Panel (2000).
The approach to beginning reading found in this program and supported by these national reports is consistent with a long line of research reports beginning with Jeanne Chall’s 1967 book, Learning to Read: The Great Debate, her many later publications, the work of Isabelle Libermann and Donald Shankweiler on phonemic awareness, the work of Kieth Stanovich on causes and consequences of reading difficulties, (“Matthew effects in reading,” 1986), Marilyn Adams’ 1990 book, Beginning Reading, and Reid Lyon’s historic summary of NICHD research on reading “Reading: A Research-Based Approach.” This is just to mention a few of the vast amount of publications made within the last 20 years along these lines. It is also important to call attention to Bonnie Grossen’s 1997 report, “Thirty Years of Research: What We Now Know About How Children Learn To Read: A synthesis of research on reading from the NIHCHD.” Dr. Grossen is a member of the board of directors of Mastery Learning Institute (MLI).
Arthur Academies’ Unique Contribution
Arthur Academies have found that children can gain a head start in learning to read in kindergarten. Yet, very few schools start this process seriously until first grade. Also, in spite of the research reviews done by AIR, which have been widely publicized (front page Oregonian, 12/14/05), very few schools use a Mastery Learning approach to teaching. There also is still a delay in recognizing and implementing the results of the recent reading commissioned reports. The Arthur Academy Charter Schools demonstrate the effectiveness of these teaching practices and therefore can have an influence in disseminating their use, in various forms, in other schools.
Project Follow Through
The Biggest Educational Study Ever
One large study that parents really should know about is Project Follow Through, completed in the 1970s. This was the largest educational study ever done, costing over $600 million, and covering 79,000 children in 180 communities. This project examined a variety of programs and educational philosophies to learn how to improve education of disadvantaged children in grades K-3. (It was launched in response to the observation that Head Start children were losing the advantages from Head Start by third grade.) Desired positive outcomes included basic skills, cognitive skills ("higher order thinking") and affective gains (self-esteem). Multiple programs were implemented over a 5-year period and the results were analyzed by the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and Abt Associates (Cambridge, MA). The various programs studied could be grouped into the three classes described above (Basic Skills, Cognitive-Conceptual, Affective-Cognitive).
The program that gave the best results in general was true Direct Instruction, a subset of Basic Skills. The other program types, which closely resemble today's educational strategies (having labels like "holistic," "student-centered learning," "learning-to-learn," "active learning," "cooperative education," and "whole language") were inferior. Students receiving Direct Instruction did better than those in all other programs when tested in reading, arithmetic, spelling, and language. But what about "higher-order thinking" and self-esteem? Contrary to common assumptions, Direct Instruction improved cognitive skills dramatically relative to the control groups and also showed the highest improvement in self-esteem scores compared to control groups. Students in the Open Education Center program, where self-esteem was the primary goal, scored LOWER than control groups in that area! As Dr. Jones puts it, "The inescapable conclusion of Project Follow Through is that kids enrolled in educational programs, which have well-defined academic objectives, will enjoy greater achievement in basic skills, thinking skills, and self-esteem. Self-esteem in fact appears to derive from pride in becoming competent in the important academic skills."
Dr. Jones goes on to explore the lamentable reaction of many educators who found their ideologies undercut by the hard data. Rather than change, many simply ignored the study and continued as before. (A more recent example of this is the continued use of whole language reading education in schools, in spite of overwheling evidence of failure). Today, we find schools spending more and more to implement forms of "affective" and "cognitive" educational programs, while continuing to turn away from anything close to Direct Instruction. This has not resulted in improved basic skills, improved thinking, or improved self-esteem.
Jones also discusses research on the long-term effects of those who received Direct Instruction in Project Follow Through and in a separate study conducted by Gersten and Keating. Kids receiving true Direct Instruction were much more likely to graduate from high school and to be accepted into college and to show long-term gains in reading, language, and math scores.
Among the multiple references Jones provides for Project Follow Through, I'll list three:
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Stebbins, L.B., R.G. St. Pierre, E.C. Proper, R.B. Anderson, and T.R. Cerva. Education as Experimentation: A Planned Variation Model, Volume IV-A, An Evaluation of Follow Through. Abt Associates, Cambridge, MA, 1977.
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Bock, G., L.B. Stebbins, and E.C. Proper. Education as Experimentation: A Planned Variation Model, Volume IV-B, Effects of Follow Through Models, Abt Associates, Cambridge, MA, 1977. [Also issued by U.S. Office of Education as National Evaluation: Detailed Effects Volume II-B of the Follow Through Planned Variation Experiment Series.]
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Meyer, L.A. Long-term academic effects of the Direct Instruction project follow through. Elementary School Journal. 84: 380-304 (1984).
The following sources have been recommended as studies showing the long-term benefits of Direct Instruction on a child:
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Gersten, R., & Keating, T (1987). Long-Term Benefits from Direct Instruction. Educational Leadership, 44(6), 28-29.
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Gersten, R., Keating, T., & Becker, W. (1988). The Continued Impact of the Direct Instruction Model: Longitudinal Studies of Follow Through Students. Education and Treatment of Children, 11(4), 318-327.
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Gary Adams, Project Follow Through and Beyond, in Effective School Practices, Volume 15, No. 1, Winter, 1995-6 Theme: What Was That Project Follow Through? This is also available at http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~adiep/ft/151toc.htm.
Research on Direct Instruction by Gary Adams and Siegfried Engelmann. Available for $24.95 + $4 shipping and handling through Educational Achievement Systems, 319 Nickerson St. - Suite 112, Seattle, WA 98109. (Did you know that the average percentile score of students in DI reading is .72 percentile and .87 in DI math? Not bad!)